The presence of South Sudanese in Egypt dates back decades, rooted in the historical interactions between Sudan and Egypt during the Turco-Egyptian (1821–1885) and Anglo-Egyptian (1898–1956) rules in Sudan, and continuing through the postcolonial era. Over time, South Sudanese migrated to Egypt as students, petty traders, tourists, and later as refugees and asylum seekers.
The postcolonial history of Sudan and the newly independent South Sudan has been marked by recurring civil wars and political instability, forcing many civilians to seek refuge and economic opportunities abroad. The first and second Sudanese civil wars (1956–1972 and 1983–2005), the conflicts in South Sudan (2013–2015 and 2016–2018), and the ongoing war in Sudan (2023–present) have displaced thousands of South Sudanese across Africa and beyond.
Despite their presence in Egypt since the late 1970s, South Sudanese were not recognized as refugees until the mid-1990s. Before 1994, their applications for refugee status were denied by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) office in Cairo, which argued that they did not meet the 1951 United Nations Refugee Convention’s definition of a refugee. This was due to the 1974 takamul (integration) agreement between Egypt and Sudan, which allowed citizens of both countries to reside in each other’s territory without a residency permit. As a result, South Sudanese were considered residents rather than refugees. The denial of refugee status shattered their hopes of resettlement, prompting many to travel from Egypt to Ifo Refugee Camp in Dadaab, Kenya, to apply for refugee status and eventual resettlement in Western countries.
The process of becoming a refugee is complex, involving multiple actors, the host government, the UNHCR, and the individuals seeking protection. According to the 1951 UN Refugee Convention and the 1967 Protocol, a refugee is any person who, owing to a well-founded fear of persecution based on race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion, is unable or unwilling to seek protection from their country of origin.
As I discussed in my book (Edward, 2007: 235), the UNHCR office in Cairo began processing South Sudanese claims for refugee status in late 1994. This policy change followed a peaceful sit-in protest by about twenty South Sudanese women and their children at the UNHCR office in Zamalek, Cairo, on October 20, 1994. The women demanded recognition as refugees under international law. Although dispersed by Egyptian authorities, their protest inspired community members to petition the UNHCR headquarters in Geneva. A team was later dispatched to Cairo to assess the situation and the reasons behind the migration of South Sudanese from Egypt to refugee camps in Kenya. Following this assessment, the UNHCR office in Cairo began processing South Sudanese refugee claims. This protest marked a turning point; it opened the way for South Sudanese to be granted refugee status in Egypt for the first time. Many were later resettled in the United States, Canada, Australia, Finland, and other Scandinavian countries.
Under a 1954 Memorandum of Understanding (MoU), Egypt delegated the registration and refugee status determination (RSD) process to the UNHCR. All foreigners, including refugees and asylum seekers, must hold valid residency permits; otherwise, they are considered to be residing illegally. The RSD process is lengthy, involving multiple visits, interviews, and considerable financial strain. Applicants are issued case numbers and interviewed to determine whether they qualify as refugees under the 1951 Convention. Once recognized, they receive a UNHCR identification card that provides limited protection. However, Egyptian authorities, including the police, often do not recognize this document. Recognized refugees are referred to UNHCR’s implementing partners such as CARITAS Egypt for needs assessments and assistance, including financial aid, medical care, education, and small-scale income-generating activities.
Unlike Uganda or Kenya, Egypt has no designated refugee camps. Refugees, including South Sudanese, live as urban refugees and must register with both the Egyptian authorities and the UNHCR to obtain documentation proving their status. Living as refugees in Egypt presents both challenges and limited opportunities. Most South Sudanese live in Cairo, Alexandria, and other major cities, renting apartments in neighborhoods shared with Egyptians. With minimal support from organizations such as UNHCR, CARITAS, and churches, refugees must work to sustain themselves.
Due to limited access to formal employment, many South Sudanese women work in the informal sector as domestic workers for Egyptian and expatriate families, while men take temporary or irregular jobs to support their households. This economic marginalization, combined with social exclusion and limited legal protection, has made life in Egypt particularly difficult for South Sudanese refugees.
As noted earlier, most South Sudanese who arrived in Egypt from the 1990s onward sought resettlement in third countries, particularly the United States, Canada, and Australia. Between the mid-1990s and early 2000s, many achieved this through refugee resettlement programs. Those now living in the United States often passed through several countries, Egypt, Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Cuba, India, Lebanon, Syria, or Iraq, before arriving in their final destinations. Others came as students, economic migrants, or through the U.S. Diversity Visa Program.
In the United States, South Sudanese communities are concentrated in states such as Nebraska, Minnesota, Iowa, the Dakotas, Texas, Tennessee, Utah, Arizona, and California. Like other African immigrants, they face social, cultural, and economic adjustment challenges but also find opportunities to rebuild their lives. Many have pursued higher education, joined the labor market, and supported their families both in the United States and in South Sudan. Despite the hardships of displacement and resettlement, South Sudanese refugees continue to demonstrate resilience and determination to achieve stability and the promise of a better future.
Indeed, the women who staged that sit-in in 1994 demanded to be seen. Their protest reminds us that refugee recognition is not a gift from institutions but a right that must be claimed, and defended, by those who have already lost everything.
The wrter, Jane Kani Edward, is an Associate Professor of African Studies and Chair of the Department of African and African American Studies at Fordham University, New York City, USA.
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